European Journal of Law and Political Science
Authors retain the copyright of their work, and grant this journal the right of first publication with the work simultaneously licensed under a <a id="menurqt" class="fui-Link ___1q1shib f2hkw1w f3rmtva f1ewtqcl fyind8e f1k6fduh f1w7gpdv fk6fouc fjoy568 figsok6 f1s184ao f1mk8lai fnbmjn9 f1o700av f13mvf36 f1cmlufx f9n3di6 f1ids18y f1tx3yz7 f1deo86v f1eh06m1 f1iescvh fhgqx19 f1olyrje f1p93eir f1nev41a f1h8hb77 f1lqvz6u f10aw75t fsle3fq f17ae5zn" title="https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/" href="https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener" aria-label="Link Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 License (CC BY-SA 4.0)">Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 License (CC BY-SA 4.0), that allows others to share the work with an acknowledgement of the work's authorship and initial publication in this journal.
Imperial Foreign Policy and the Erosion of European Legal Order: Trump, Putin, and the Politics of International Law
The Trump administration and Putin’s Russia challenge Europe’s legal and security architecture by converging imperial paradigms that reject sovereign equality and multilateral constraints. Drawing on Schmittian spatial theory (Großraum) and analyses of great-power revisionism, this article examines how Trump’s economic coercion (e.g., tariff threats against Canada/Mexico and Greenland claims) and Putin’s military aggression (e.g., Ukraine invasion) undermine Article 2(4) UN Charter enforcement, European Convention on Human Rights (ECHR) extraterritorial jurisdiction, and NATO Article 5 cohesion. It identifies structural asymmetries in international law, where great-power vetoes shield violators, exposing Europe’s dependence on U.S. guarantees and Strasbourg oversight. A comparative analysis reveals methodological differences—economic versus military instruments—but ideological convergence in sphere-of-influence doctrines. The findings highlight enforcement gaps and recommend European strategic autonomy: enhanced ECHR/EU monitoring, special tribunals for aggression, and 3%–4% GDP defence spending for collective security without U.S. reliance. This reorientation preserves human rights amid revisionism.
Copyright (c) 2026 Roland Brandtjen https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-sa/4.0
The Jungle vs. the Garden: The Concepts of “Care” and “Control” in EU Asylum Policies and Migration Governance
The European Union’s accommodative and coordinated response to the arrival of Ukrainian refugees fleeing Russia’s invasion of the country on February 24th, 2022, was vastly different from its restrictive and fragmented response to refugee fleeing conflict in Syria, Afghanistan, Libya, and other conflict zones. To elucidate the differences between the 2022 and 2015 responses, this paper examines two key policy documents: the European Commission’s European Agenda on Migration from May 2015, and the Council Decision from March 2022, which activated the Temporary Protection Directive. This study employs discourse analysis to underscore how refugees are legitimized as people in need who are deemed eligible for access to asylum procedures or are delegitimized as supposed economic migrants whose country of origin determines their inadmissibility to asylum procedures and justifies their channeling into detention and subsequent return procedures. The dichotomy of the mass influx of “migrants” from the Global South vs. the mass influx of “displaced people” from Ukraine illustrates the hierarchization and categorization of asylum-seekers into undeserving and deserving individuals. This categorization, in turn, justifies the deployment of securitarian European migration management, which contains the movement of asylum-seekers and grants access to international protection in accordance with constructed racialized hierarchies, as demonstrated in the Hotspot Approach established in Italy and the Greek islands. This two-tiered biopolitical differentiation and temporal/spatial control of asylum-seekers is in stark contrast to the policy of accommodation, solidarity, and repeal of the restriction of movement for Ukrainian refugees or, more specifically, for white Ukrainian nationals. Furthermore, this paper draws on Williams’ safety/security nexus, as well as Pallister–Wilkens’ concept of care and control as manifested in what she terms the EU’s “humanitarian borderwork.” It reveals the EU’s call of “saving lives” of those crossing the Mediterranean as a political opportunity to deploy an exclusionist response towards poor and racialized asylum-seekers, consolidating illegal border practices and institutionalizing the categorization of asylum-seekers into “desirable” or “undesirable” species.
Copyright (c) 2026 Bahlbi Yemane Malk, Katharina Albalkhi https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-sa/4.0
The Paradox of Party Strength and Public Image in Bangladesh: Do Intra-Party Disciplinary Sanctions Matter?
Political parties often take disciplinary sanctions against party members for misconduct. A major debate in political party research is whether removing controversial grassroots leaders helps or hurts a party. Leaders who engage in criminal or corrupt activities are often crucial for mobilizing voters at the grassroots level. Electorally dominant political parties sometimes depend on strong patron-client relationships to remain competitive in elections. This study investigates two research questions: what are the intra-party disciplinary measures a political party takes against its own members, and what are the short-term and long-term consequences of these disciplinary measures. Using qualitative research methods, the study finds that following constitution, ideological norms, values and practices, parties take various forms of disciplinary measures such as, committee dissolution, denial of party nomination, making a leader inactive, and temporary and permanent suspension, etc. The study argues that disciplinary sanctions against controversial leaders can enhance a party’s reputation for a short time. However, these actions can also weaken long-term organizational strength by upsetting grassroots patronage networks, escalating factionalism, and ignoring the structural incentives.
Copyright (c) 2026 Mohammad Aynul Islam, Md. Mazhar Uddin Bhuiyan https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-sa/4.0
Of all the ideas that came to the fore during the time of enlightenment in Europe, none has had a more telling impact on the lives of the people across the globe as much as Democracy. Even in the regions where oppressive dictatorial regimes or despotic kingdoms exist, the ideals of democracy still have a large impact on the power struggles and exercise of authority within the state infrastructure. However, these ideals of democracy are not perfect in themselves and are riddled with paradoxes which cannot be resolved without breaching these democratic ideals themselves. In his attempt to resolve the paradox of politics Rousseau created the fiction of a lawgiver which as pointed out above was a breach of the ideas on which democracy is established. The paradox of democratic legitimacy remains another such paradox which cannot be resolved without replacing democracy with populism or constitutionalism. Institutions like the legislature, judiciary, executive, police, military, media, civil society and the like, collectively define a state. At the very same time, these institutions that constitute the state are also embedded in the society. These paradoxes of democracy that get realized into the public institutions pass on through to our society and have considerable politico-legal impact on our society. Democratic society reacts to these paradoxical situations in different ways, either giving rise to populist totalitarianism like fascism or scientific totalitarianism like socialism/communism. This paper deals with the critical analysis of the various democratic paradoxes how they filter down to our society, and how they are institutionally realized creating the paradox of Institutional Responsibility.
Copyright (c) 2026 Sumit Kumar https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-sa/4.0
Trump’s Authoritarian Rhetoric and Policies: Parallels with Nazi Propaganda and Its Implications
This article examines whether the rhetoric and policies of Donald Trump reflect key characteristics of fascist politics. Drawing on the works of political theorists such as Hannah Arendt and Jason Stanley, it situates Trump’s discourse within broader fascist political patterns, including scapegoating, diverse forms of propaganda, and the concentration of executive power. The analysis highlights parallels between these patterns and Trump’s rhetoric and policies, arguing that they not only endanger democratic structures in the United States but also resonate internationally. It concludes that Trump and his allies’ actions influence far-right movements in Europe and beyond, posing a broader threat to democracy.
Copyright (c) 2026 Snizhana Kalachynska https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-sa/4.0
Militarization of Outer Space and the Human Right to Peace: Challenges and Prospects in International Law
The protection of the human right to peace is seriously threatened by the militarization of space, which also presents a serious threat to global peace and security. Global stability is threatened by conventional weapons, anti-satellite (ASAT) technologies, and dual-use systems that are allowed to exist due to legal loopholes, despite the 1967 Outer Space Treaty and its associated instruments establishing space as the province of all humanity and forbidding the placement of WMDs in orbit. This article examines the dangers posed by a developing arms race beyond Earth, traces the development of legal standards, and examines the relationship between the militarization of outer space and the human right to peace. It draws attention to the shortcomings of existing treaties, the applicability of international humanitarian law and the UN Charter, and the growing significance of measures aimed at fostering transparency and confidence. According to the analysis, maintaining peace in space necessitates integrating human rights principles into space governance as well as fortifying international legal structures. The paper continues by giving policy ideas targeted at reaffirming outer space as a domain of peaceful collaboration and ensuring that the human right to peace is safeguarded for future generations.
Copyright (c) 2026 Ismatov Azimjon, Karikari Livingston, Mansoor Hassan https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-sa/4.0
From Criminalization to Restoration: Reformulating Narcotic Law Policy with a Restorative Justice Approach in Indonesia
This normative legal study explores the reformulation of narcotic law policy in Indonesia with a restorative justice approach as well as with a statutory and conceptual approach. The results of this study indicate that the integration model of restorative justice in narcotic law enforcement in Indonesia serves as a humanistic alternative that emphasizes the physical, mental, and social recovery of narcotics users through medical and social rehabilitation, replacing the punitive approach. This approach is reflected in regulations that allow for the swift, simple, and low-cost resolution of narcotics cases through the synergy of law enforcement officials and the involvement of the community as mediators in the recovery process. The reformulation of narcotic law policy with a restorative justice approach is important to address the limitations of the formalistic system and reduce negative impacts such as overcrowding in correctional facilities, while providing opportunities for social reintegration for addicts as victims of dependency. Nevertheless, its implementation still faces challenges such as social stigma and resistance from authorities, requiring stronger regulations and improved public education to support the success of this model as a humane and effective justice solution.
Copyright (c) 2025 Azwad Rachmat Hambali, Salle Salle, Zainuddin Zainuddin, Andi Risma https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-sa/4.0
Türkiye-Ghana Foreign Relations: A Comprehensive Analysis
This study provides a comprehensive analysis of the diplomatic relations between Ghana and Türkiye, tracing their historical trajectory and examining the key events that have shaped bilateral engagement. Situated within the frameworks of foreign policy analysis, African Studies, and International Relations, this study adopts a multidisciplinary approach to investigate the political, economic, and cultural dimensions of this relationship. Particular attention is given to the domestic and international factors influencing the evolution of Türkiye–Ghana ties, with emphasis on trade and economic cooperation, diplomatic initiatives, and shared geopolitical interests. The analysis also considers the impact of broader global transformations—including shifts in the international political and economic landscape—on bilateral relations. In doing so, this study identifies both the opportunities and the challenges confronting Ghana and Türkiye in their efforts to deepen cooperation. By integrating historical and contemporary perspectives, this study offers valuable insights for policymakers, scholars, and practitioners concerned with the dynamics of international diplomacy and the emerging role of Türkiye in Africa.
Copyright (c) 2025 Abdallah Imam Haruna https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-sa/4.0
Post-Territorial Sovereignty: Reassessing State Jurisdiction over Space Objects under International Space Law
Our understanding of law and sovereignty has evolved as a result of space travel. Sovereignty on Earth typically refers to authority over a region of land or sea. However, international law states that space belongs to everyone, hence no government can claim territory in outer space. However, nations continue to have control over the satellites, spacecraft, and other space objects they register and launch. States are in charge of their own space objects but are unable to own the space surrounding them, which leads to a unique legal predicament. This article examines how international agreements, including the Liability Convention, the Registration Convention, and the Outer Space Treaty, establish jurisdiction in space. It describes who is liable for damage, how states are in charge of their spacecraft, and how private businesses are altering the law. Emerging frontiers that push the boundaries of current law and necessitate new approaches to sovereignty are also examined in the study, including the construction of lunar bases, resource extraction endeavors, and the militarization of space. It contends that the concept of sovereignty in space is changing, moving away from geographically based exclusive control and toward shared stewardship and functional jurisdiction, where power is derived more from duties in overseeing a shared domain than from territorial claims. The paper illustrates the necessity of a post-territorial legal system that balances state interests with the necessity of collaboration in overseeing the last frontier by following these developments. The paper concludes and suggests a new “post-territorial” legal order, which is built on cooperation rather than ownership of the space environment.
Copyright (c) 2025 Ismatov Azimjon, Karikari Livingston, Kassim Bakari Kipanga https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-sa/4.0
Sexual Grooming: A Look at the Experience of Some Countries and Suggested Solutions for Vietnam
In the world and in Vietnam, the issue of sexual grooming (seducing minors for sexual abuse) is becoming increasingly painful, as a series of cases of sexual abuse of minors are discovered. To overcome this situation, countries around the world and some Southeast Asian countries have taken effective measures, especially by promulgating and implementing legal regulations. This article presents some theoretical issues on the act of seduction for sexual purposes, such as determining the definition and characteristics of the act of seduction for sexual purposes, systematizing and clarifying the regulations of some Southeast Asian countries on the act of seduction for sexual purposes, and making some recommendations to handle the act of seduction for sexual purposes in Vietnam.
Copyright (c) 2025 Tran Diep Anh https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-sa/4.0
Defections without Consequences? Rethinking the Legal Gaps in Nigeria’s Executive Political Migration
Political defections have become a recurring and controversial feature of Nigeria’s democratic landscape, particularly among executive office holders such as governors and the president. While party-switching is not inherently unconstitutional, the Nigerian legal framework appears to tolerate executive defections without imposing tangible consequences, unlike the legislative branch where limited checks exist under Sections 68 and 109 of the 1999 Constitution. This paper critically examines the legal, institutional, and judicial gaps that have allowed these defections to go largely unpunished, undermining political stability, public trust, and democratic accountability. Drawing on doctrinal analysis, recent case studies from 2015 to 2025, and comparative insights from India and South Africa, the paper reveals that Nigeria’s constitutional silence on executive defection has emboldened opportunistic political migration. It argues for urgent legal reform to safeguard political integrity and suggests targeted constitutional amendments and statutory provisions that could introduce deterrents and ensure accountability among executive defectors.
Copyright (c) 2025 Ogechi Jessica Megbele, Ejiro Tessy Kore-Okiti, Kingsley Omote Mrabure http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0
The Impact of Digital Technology on International Humanitarian Law: Ethical and Legal Implications of Autonomous Weapons Systems
This article examines the complex intersection of digital technology and international humanitarian law (IHL), with a particular focus on autonomous weapons systems (AWS). The rapid advancement of artificial intelligence and robotics has fundamentally transformed modern warfare, challenging the traditional legal frameworks designed for conventional conflicts. Through a comprehensive analysis of existing legal instruments, scholarly discourse, and emerging state practices, this study explores how the principles of distinction, proportionality, and precaution apply to increasingly autonomous military technologies. This article argues that while current IHL provisions remain relevant, significant gaps exist regarding accountability, meaningful human control, and ethical decision-making in autonomous systems. It concludes by proposing adaptive interpretations of existing frameworks and potential new regulatory approaches to address the unique challenges posed by digital warfare technologies while preserving humanitarian protection in armed conflicts.
Copyright (c) 2026 Badreldin Hamad http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0
Cyberspace Reading through the Prism of International Relations Theories: Morocco as a Practical Case
A new space for the projection of power, rivalry and cooperation is emerging, integrating it into international relations raises major geopolitical and theoretical issues. In this article we will present a cross-analysis of this new battlefield, through the main theories in international relations, namely realism, liberalism, and constructivism, while revealing how its power has redefined the balance of power on the world stage, by adopting an analytical and qualitative approach, based on a documentary method and theoretical research. This methodology will allow us to cross-reference the theoretical framework with empirical reality. We are also interested in a geopolitical dimension which highlights the emergence of digital diplomacy as a lever of influence. As an illustration, the case of Morocco was used as a new emerging power in this area on the African continent. Through this article we hope to show that cyberspace is a strategic field requiring special attention in contemporary international relations.
Copyright (c) 2025 Zahra Saaid http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0
Applicability of Copenhagen School’s Theory of Securitization in Kyrgyzstan’s Tulip Revolution
The Copenhagen School’s securitization theory, initially emerging as a critique of mainstream realist and liberal international relations theories, has evolved as a separate theory focusing on the intersubjective meaning of security and its formation through social life. Shifting from the state centric security, securitization places the audience as the main actor to determine whether the placement of issue will be raised to high politics. Nevertheless the theory itself has been under scrutiny of postcolonial and feminist critiques that have since positioned securitization theory closer to the very mainstream approaches it sought to challenge. Following from this, this article aims to provide an overall critique of the securitization theory being labelled as unusable in the context of Tulip Revolution in Kyrgyzstan and non-western settings in general. This paper critically examines these claims, arguing that, on the contrary, the theory itself is applicable outside the European context without altering its core premises, and that securitization theory cannot be applied at all in an empirical study of the Tulip Revolution.
Copyright (c) 2025 Mina Vidaković http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0
The Legal Implications of the ‘Ayinah Sale: A Comparative Jurisprudential and Statutory Study
This research examines the legal implications of the ‘Ayinah sale from a jurisprudential and comparative legal perspective, focusing on the legitimacy of this type of sale and its effects on the parties to the contractual relationship. ‘Ayinah sale is one of the methods used by some to circumvent the prohibition of usury. It involves selling a commodity for a deferred payment and then repurchasing it in cash for a lower price, essentially resembling a usurious loan. The research addressed the position of Islamic jurisprudence in its various schools of thought. The Shafi’is and some Zahiris held that it is permissible to sell ‘‘Ayinah based on the generality of the Almighty’s saying: “Allah has permitted trade.” Meanwhile, the Hanafi, Maliki, and Hanbali schools of thought hold that this sale is forbidden as a means of usury, based on prophetic hadiths forbidding ‘Ayinah sale. Ja‘fari jurisprudence distinguishes between sales with a conditional ‘Ayinah (i.e., sale)—which it prohibits—and sales without a conditional ‘Ayinah (i.e., sale)—which it permits with conditions. From a legal perspective, the Iraqi legislature does not explicitly stipulate the sale of ‘Ayinah. However, the application of the rules of the Civil Code, particularly Articles 171 and 172, allows the judge to intervene if the Interest exceeds the legal limits, which could lead to the Contract being invalidated or modified. The study concluded that the sale of ‘Ayinah is permissible under Islamic Law if the purchase-back clause is absent and the sale is not used as a means of circumventing usury. It is also necessary that the commodity be actually taken possession of; otherwise, it is forbidden by Islamic Law and legally void. Furthermore, such sales create an imbalance in the Contract and harm the debtor, which requires a clear legislative stance.
Copyright (c) 2025 Sura Abbas Thamer http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0
The Regulation of Genetic Engineered Plants and Production of Plant Varieties in Nigeria
The rise in use of technology comes with it a wave of innovations at almost every fragment of the human life. These innovations have great bearing with respect to their protection as intellectual property rights. With the development in many irresistible state of the art equipment, there have been consequential innovations, advantageous mutations and varied explorations in diverse fields of human endeavor, which to say the least are methodological based and solution oriented. The reality of these innovations has arisen a corresponding need to protect various sort property rights, either via the grant of a patents, copyrights, trademarks or industrial designs and in this context, plant breeders’ rights. Using doctrinal research methodology, the focus of the ensuing discourse is targeted at navigating the means for the regulation of genetically engineered plants and plant breeding in Nigeria, taking into consideration applicable regulatory frameworks relevant to the subject under view. The article examines the strengths and lacunas inherent in the Nigeria Plant Variety Protection Act, 2021 and as part of its findings, the discourse establishes that there is need for more awareness and fortified implementation collaborations by stakeholders to ensure the intended objective of the Act is realised.
Copyright (c) 2025 Ejiro Kore-Okiti http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0
Legal Protection of Copyright Towards Work Piracy for ‘Paid Stories’ Written Works on Wattpad Platform: A Case Study in Indonesia
In the digital era, Wattpad makes it easy for writers to publish their work especially after Paid Stories launched openly but inevitably related to copyright issues, especially piracy. This study aims to determine the legal protection system against Paid Stories piracy in Wattpad, using a qualitative normative-empirical method, and a case study approach with the results of an interview with one of Wattpad’s active writers, focusing on Law No. 28 of 2014 concerning Copyright. To address these issues, Wattpad should enhance copyright protection through technological innovations, such as automated notifications and tracking systems to detect and flag potential infringements. Additionally, the platform could improve contractual terms for Paid Stories authors to ensure shared accountability and foster stronger collaborations with global copyright enforcement organizations. By combining legal frameworks, technological advancements, and public education, Wattpad can create a supportive environment where authors’ rights are protected, and copyright violations are minimized.
Copyright (c) 2025 Natassja Putri Gumilang, Fennieka Kristianto http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0
The Legal Validity of Electronic Certificates as Evidence of Legitimate Land Ownership
Recent worldwide innovations and technology breakthroughs, especially in Indonesia, profoundly influence societal dynamics. This inherently drives the government to innovate and adapt, especially in legislative areas that align with contemporary advancements. The challenge of establishing land ownership rights in Indonesia is one such issue. Counterfeit certificates, duplicate documents, conflicting evidence of land ownership rights, and various offences in the agricultural sector remain prevalent, resulting in disputes over land ownership rights that are profoundly detrimental to the Indonesian populace. These elements render the certificate invalid and can offer the rights holders legislative certainty. For the government to take action, specifically by enacting Regulation Minister Agrarian and Spatial Planning/Head of the National Land Body Regulation Number 3 of 2023 about the Issuance of Electronic Documents in Land Registration Activities (PM 3/2023). This regulation elicits varied responses across societal strata; some individuals embrace it as a means of modernization that streamlines the process of establishing property rights and offers legal security and protection for landowners. Conversely, a significant portion of the community opposes this regulation, as they remain skeptical of the digital system and question the validity of a digital card as proof of legal land ownership. This article aims to examine the legal validity of e-certificates as evidence of land ownership and to address the challenges and solutions associated with transitioning from physical certificates to e-certificates in Indonesia. This writing and research employ a normative legal research methodology, wherein the author will conduct an investigation based on literary sources, prioritizing this approach. Legal statutes and regulations pertinent to Indonesia. This research use descriptive analytical approaches to elucidate the situation under inquiry and analyze it based on secondary data derived from legal papers. This paper’s findings indicate that the e-certificate mechanism can offer legal certainty to the community and facilitate the acquisition of digital land ownership records, free from damage, forgery, and overlapping rights.
Copyright (c) 2025 Deny Haspada http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0
Rohingya Refugees: The Indonesian Government’s Dilemma between Legal Responsibility and Humanitarian Responsibility
This research explores the implementation of the Indonesian government’s dilemma regarding Rohingya refugees in relation to legal responsibility and humanitarian responsibility. This research is a normative (doctrinal) study with a statutory and conceptual approach. The results indicated that the Indonesian government has a legal responsibility to protect Rohingya refugees based on the principles in ratified international treaties, which include protection from expulsion and fulfilment of refugees’ basic rights in accordance with applicable legal provisions. Meanwhile, Indonesia’s humanitarian responsibilities are multidimensional: saving lives, fulfilling basic needs, and encouraging global political solutions. Despite limited resources and local pressures, the government continues to fulfil its role as a “first asylum country” based on the principles of humanity and solidarity.
Copyright (c) 2025 Salle Salle, Zainuddin Zainuddin, Andi Risma http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0
Repercussions of the United States’ Withdrawal from the International Iranian Nuclear Agreement
This text explores Iran’s willingness to enhance transparency and compliance with international nuclear regulations by agreeing to grant limited access to non-nuclear sites, particularly military facilities, for International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) inspectors. The commitment is made within the framework of the Additional Protocol to the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty (NPT), showcasing Iran’s dedication to implementing and ratifying international agreements. One of the key provisions of Iran’s commitment involves a substantial reduction in the number of centrifuges over ten years. The total number of centrifuges is set to decrease from 19,000 devices (including 10,200 currently operational) to 6,104. Furthermore, only 5,060 of these centrifuges will be authorized to produce uranium enriched at a rate not exceeding 3.67% for 15 years. Notably, all centrifuges used during this period will be of the first generation, emphasizing Iran’s adherence to specified technological limitations. This abstract provides an overview of Iran’s multifaceted commitments, highlighting its efforts to address global concerns surrounding its nuclear program while operating within the stipulations of the Additional Protocol to the NPT. ten years.
Copyright (c) 2025 Tariq Kakarash Muhealddin http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0
Trading with Adversaries: Russia-Europe Economic Relations Amid the Ukraine Conflict
Trade remains a fundamental component of a country’s economic activities, even amidst the turmoil of war. This paper examines the impact of conflict on trade, particularly focusing on the dynamics between former trading partners who become belligerents. This research applies four International Relations frameworks—Relative Gain, Third Party Consideration, Domestic Political Economy, and Types of Traded Products—to analyze the economic interactions between Russia and European countries during the Russia-Ukraine War that began in 2022. The war has not only altered the geopolitical landscape but also disrupted global trade networks, compelling countries to navigate a new international situation. The study finds that the Relative Gains framework most effectively explains the behavior of Russia and the EU, though it highlights the need for more precise criteria within this framework to predict trade disruptions. The paper also discusses the limitations of the other frameworks and suggests that future research should focus on developing quantifiable measures to better understand and predict economic relations during wartime.
Copyright (c) 2025 Yuze Liu http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0
Comparison of Indonesian and Malaysian Tax Court Laws Following Constitutional Court Decision Number 26/PUU-XXI/2023
Tax disputes in Indonesia are complex and have their own mechanisms. This study compares two Southeast Asian laws, namely Indonesian law and Malaysian law, by looking at the definition, characteristics, objectives, and legal systems in the tax court structure. The purpose of this study is to see and find advantages and disadvantages. When compared to the Malaysian legal system, Indonesia has many advantages, such as the overall dispute resolution time, which is relatively shorter when compared to tax disputes in Malaysia, but also has disadvantages, such as the status of independence against tax objections due to its unified position with the Directorate General of Taxes, as well as the tax court which is still under the Ministry of Finance. Indonesia, as a country of law, must have a good and definite legal system, with a court structure that considers the culture and customs of society like Malaysia, because law enforcement will be more effective if it is in accordance with the values or customs that have been formed in the community itself.
Copyright (c) 2025 Sony Devano, Shelly Kurniawan, Imam Irham http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0
From Reform to Revolt: The Complex Path Leading to Sheikh Hasina’s Political Fall
This paper examines the dramatic fall of Sheikh Hasina, world’s longestserving female prime minister, amid widespread protests and political turmoil. It explores the factors contributing to her resignation after a 15-year continuous rule, including economic mismanagement, allegations of corruption, and brutal suppression of dissent. The study analyzes the socio-political context leading to the anti-quota protests and the subsequent mass uprisings that forced Hasina to flee the country. By evaluating the impact of military intervention and public discontent, the paper provides insights into the broader implications for Bangladeshi democracy and governance. The findings highlight the interplay between authoritarian governance, economic inequality, and the role of civil unrest in shaping political change.
Copyright (c) 2025 Maksudul Shadat Akash, Md. Toufiqul Sharif http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0
Theory and Practice of Social Media’s Content Moderation by Artificial Intelligence in Light of European Union’s AI Act and Digital Services Act
After a brief, general introduction to AI, the present article will discuss whether AI itself has freedom of expression or whether it only entitles to tech companies that own AI. All this is relevant in the context of whether we can consider AI a separate legal actor in the context of content creation on social media, which is the second main issue of this article. Here, negative and positive cases of content moderation will be presented, i.e., whether the full spectrum of content moderation in social media can be entrusted to AI as a separate actor with respect to liability, or whether moderation requires some form of human control, direction or supervision.
Copyright (c) 2025 Gergely Gosztonyi, Dorina Gyetván, Andrea Kovács http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0
A Study on the Interactive Mechanism between Racism and Terrorism in Europe
Given the growing racial and religious tensions in Europe and the frequent occurrences of terrorist activities, studying the correlation between the two can provide a theoretical basis for preventing terrorist activities. This study aims to explore the logical relationship and interaction mechanism between them. Taking the Paris terrorist attack in 2015 as an example, adopting the analytical dualism theory, this paper analyzes the mutual influence paths between racial discrimination and terrorist activities and discusses from cultural and structural perspectives the conditions under which racism becomes the hotbed for extremism, as well as the ways terrorist organizations manipulate racial issues to expand influence. The study concludes that racial divides in Europe provide a real basis for the spread of extremism, while extremist organizations also manipulate racial, customary, and religious emotions through online and offline means to expand influence, and the two reinforce each other. To thoroughly break this vicious cycle, positive multicultural identity needs to be promoted, structural discrimination between races needs to be eliminated at the social system level, and the independent thinking abilities and subjectivity of minority ethnic groups need to be enhanced to block the conduction of resentful emotions towards terrorism at its root.
Copyright (c) 2024 Zhiqiang Zhao, Jirong Guo, Qian Zhang http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0
Sound Allyship? Straight Politicians and LGBQ Representation in Canada
How do heterosexual politicians who are allies perform LGBQ representation? Through the eyes of Canadian LGBQ parliamentarians, I uncover some heterosexual politicians’ motivations for becoming allies and some of their concrete practices in this regard. I also identify some criticisms voiced by LGBQ parliamentarians in relation to their heterosexual colleagues’ activities of LGBQ representation. Straight politicians become allies for ideological and lived experience reasons. However, beyond best intentions, heterosexual allyship is not without its critics among LGBQ parliamentarians. In conclusion, I contemplate some of the contributions that this article can make to substantive representation and argue for further work to address the voices and experiences of straight parliamentarians on their allyship activities of LGBQ representation.
Copyright (c) 2024 Manon Tremblay http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0
Restoration of Children’s Rights after Imprisonment in the Perspective of State Responsibility
Sensitivity to a sense of justice and concern for the next generation of a nation should also be measured by their attention to efforts to protect the rights of troubled children, especially the rights of post-prison children. This research aims to examine the weaknesses of the regulation of children’s rights after imprisonment and to examine the state’s responsibility in restoring the rights of children after imprisonment. This research uses normative legal research methods with statutory and conceptual approaches. The results of the study show that, basically, the rights of children who are post-convicted, as previously mentioned, are regulated in the Child Protection System Law and generally regulated in the Child Protection Law. In an effort to fulfill human rights by the Indonesian State, it must be carried out thoroughly, including in terms of fulfilling children’s rights as part of human rights in general, and the fulfillment of children’s rights itself must be carried out for all children who live, grow and develop under the umbrella of Indonesian law, including children after being convicted. The regulation of children’s rights as stipulated in the Child Protection System Law and the Child Protection Law is not enough, so in addition to the need to explicitly emphasize the rights of children after being released from prison, it is also necessary to regulate the mechanism for restoring their rights after being released from prison.
Copyright (c) 2024 Abdul Wahid, Jubair Jubair, Hamdan Rampadio, Kartini Malarangan http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0
European Union Posting of Workers Law and Equal Treatment in Internal Labour Market for Social Cohesion
The main objective of this article was to examine the European Union Posting of Workers Directive as an instrument for the internal labour market to achieve social cohesion. A posted worker is an employee that the employer has sent to a territory of a Member State (other than the State where he/she normally works) to perform his/her tasks during a given period. The latest revision (PWD 2018/957) has allowed the introduction of amendments to the posting of workers legislation, which improved the previous law and reinforced the legal protection of posted workers. Its objective is to reinforce the posting of workers’ policy to eradicate some prejudicious practices detected in applying the previous Directive, such as inequitable work conditions and unfair competition, which are obstacles to social cohesion. This paper analyses the Directive as a key instrument for social cohesion in light of the modifications introduced to improve the Directive (PWD 2018/957). Proposals for improvement of the Directive for social cohesion are formulated in terms of cooperation, availability of information, and inspectorate, which still require more attention and reformulation for better labour mobility of posting of workers in the European Union. Some key practical implications are discussed.
Copyright (c) 2024 Richard Mababu Mukiur http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0
Analysis of Civil-Military Relations of Ghana from 1957 to 2022
The Constitutional basis of the Civil-Military Relations pertaining to Ghana emerged out of its history with military interventions. Given the narrative of Ghana’s civil-military relations and those of some of the nations in Sub-Saharan Africa, it may be appropriate not to attribute the constitutional approach underlying the civil-military design in Ghana to the “Concordance” or “Separation” model. Those models probably provide realistic civil-military approaches for Western industrialized nations with huge standing armies, militias, and good governance systems. Perhaps the “Constitutional” model may be considered as the primary denominator for analysis of the legal framework on Civil-Military Relations in Ghana and in Sub-Saharan Africa, despite the occasional similarities in “Separation” or “Concordance” theory in those nations.
Copyright (c) 2024 Ishmael D. Norman http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0
Legal Certainty of Decision Number 719/Pdt.G/2021/PA.Pbun Concerning the Nullification of Marriage According to Islamic Syari’at
The Religious Court, in decision No. 719/Pdt.G/2021/PA.Pbun cancelled the marriage due to identity forgery after considering various legal aspects. The purpose of this research is to find out what judges consider when they make decisions on cases. This research uses descriptive analysis methodology and a normative juridical approach, which means examining and studying laws and regulations relating to the current issue. The research also uses a qualitative juridical data analysis method to analyse data with concepts or theories without formulas. In accordance with Articles 23 and 24 of Law Number 16 of 2019 concerning Amendments to Law Number 1 of 1974 concerning Marriage, as well as Article 71 paragraphs (b) and (c) of Book I of the Compilation of Islamic Law, the judge has sufficient grounds to decide that the marriage can be cancelled due to factually and materially incorrect identity.
Copyright (c) 2024 Emma Dysmala, Tita Meirina Djuwita, Sofyan Mei Utama http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0